The British established their colonial footprint in the Horn of Africa in 1865 following the construction of the Suez canal, which opened in 1869.[1] The canal considerably shortened the trade and military routes to India and the East. The huge cost of the canal’s construction pushed Egypt to seek financial partnership with the Ottoman empire in the construction of the canal and consequently owed nominal allegiance to the Ottoman sultan.[2] However, Egypt had been bankrupted by the huge cost of the project and because of the dire financial situation, Egypt sold its shares in the canal to Britain in 1875, who effectively took over Egyptian finances and, in effect, running the country.[3] This caused outrage among large numbers of Egyptians. Their anger was exacerbated by the decision of their ruler, the Khedive (Viceroy), to get rid of many Egyptian Army officers as a money-saving measure.
There was widespread discontent in Egypt and Sudan (whose control the British had assumed when they took over Egypt), and given the fact that the bulk of British forces were stationed in northern Egypt, protecting Cairo, Alexandria, and the Suez Canal, opposition to Tewfik and his European protectors increased in Egypt.[4] In contrast, the British military presence in Sudan was comparatively limited, and this led to the outbreak of the ‘Mahdist’ revolt under the leadership of Sudanese religious leader Muhammad ibn Abdalla, the self-proclaimed ‘Mahdi’ (Guided One). The rebellion aimed to expel the British and also overthrow the Egyptian monarch under Tewfik. The Mahdiya managed to keep the British and Egyptian forces out of Sudan until it weakened and was reconquered following the defeat by a joint Anglo-Egyptian force in 1898.[5]
Following the Anglo-Egyptian re-conquest of the Sudan, the British were unwilling to either annex the territory or to allow its reincorporation with Egypt. Subsequently, a Condominium agreement was reached in 1899 in which the Britain and Egypt were to rule jointly.[6] The ‘Condominium Agreement’ in reality, apportioned the management of the Sudan to the British, and Egypt was supposed to pay for Sudan’s administrative costs. British rule was to be administered through a Governor-General who was appointed by the ruler of Egypt but nominated and approved by the Britain Crown.[7
At the central administration, the Governor-General was assisted by a Secretary-General, an Inspector-General, a Legal Secretary, a Financial Secretary and Directors of Departments. The chief departments were those of Surveys, Works, Education, Irrigation, Medicine and Sanitation, Woods and Forests, Agriculture and Lands, Railways, Steamers and Boats, Telegraphs and Posts, Customs, Game Preservations, Veterinary Work and Slavery Repression.[8] However, the government’s general policy and all the major administrative measures were formulated by the Consul-General in Egypt, while the details of execution were left to the Governor-General in Sudan.
As the country was governed under martial law, higher ranks of the administration both in Khartoum and in the provinces were mainly dominated by army officers. The British and Egyptian troops were organized in peace time by the Governor-General who delegated the command of the British troops to senior British officers.[9] In emergency cases, the British officers also commanded the mixed British and Egyptian troops, while Egyptian officers were kept in a sub-ordinate position. Therefore, the system of the government during the Condominium period could be described as an ‘autocracy on military lines for civil purposes’, so that people could be pacified easily, and the country be organized properly by direct control with close supervision by the Government. The Governor-General’s authority in the provinces was exercised through his representatives who were themselves directly in contact with the people.[10]
The Governor-General’s Council, an advisory Council to the Governor-General was set up in January 1910 to meet the administrative needs of the country. It consisted of four ex-officio members, namely the inspector general, the financial, legal and civil secretaries, and between two and four members appointed by the Governor-General himself. The role of the Council was to promote administrative stability and continuity of policy in Sudan affairs, and act as a useful part of the machinery of the government.[11] The Council also performed an advisory role in all matters of promotion, appointments, defense and military affairs when permitted to do so by the governor-general.[12]
Heads of departments and provincial governors on the Council could also bring to the council business relating to their own departments and provinces, but the governor had to first obtain the sanction of the governor-general. In general, no action involving major policy was to be taken by either the Governor-General acting alone, or by the Governor-General’s Council itself, before consulting the Consul-General in Cairo, who could convey the views of the British and Egyptian Governments. The Governor-General had supreme authority to overrule the council’s decisions or to suspend their operations. In such cases, however, he was obliged to record his reasons and refer the matter to the British and Egyptian governments.
The Governor-General’s Council also had the role of enacting and proclaiming all ordinances, laws and regulations. The annual budget and supplementary credits were also to be passed through this Council.[13] The Council also dealt with problems of land-ownership, personnel, agriculture, trade and the yearly budget.[14] The Council was also charged with the role of introducing a form of ‘constitutionalism’ into the administration, delegating some responsibilities to the various heads of departments and governors of provinces in respect of their several spheres. The Council also formalized conversations about the problems of the Sudanese affairs in the administration, and unofficial relations between the Governor-General and the British Agent and Consul-General in Egypt.[15]
[1] Daly, M.W. (2009). The Development of the Governor-Generalship of the Sudan, 1899–1934, The Journal of African History , 24(1), pp. 77 – 96
[2] Alford, H.S.L, & W. Dennistoun S. (1999). The Egyptian Soudan: Its Loss and Recovery. London: Macmillan, London.
[3] Collins, C. (1976). Colonialism and Class Struggle in Sudan. MERIP Reports, 46(1), 3-20.
[4] Henderson, K.D.D. (1946). Survey of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 1898–1944, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., London.
[5] Alford, H.S.L, & W. Dennistoun S. (1999). The Egyptian Soudan: Its Loss and Recovery. London: Macmillan, London.
[6] Archer, T. (1985). The War in Egypt and the Soudan: An Episode in the History of the British Empire. 4 vols. London: Blackie.
[7] Butler, D.A. (2007). The First Jihad: The Battle for Khartoum and the Dawn of Militant Islam. Philadelphia: Casemate.
[8] Budge, E.A.W. (2007). The Egyptian Sudan: Its History and Monuments, Vol. II, Kegan Paul, London.
[9] Warburg, G. (1971). The Sudan under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1899-1916, Frank Cass, London.
[10] MacMichael, H. (1934). The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Faber and Faber, London.
[11] Abdul-Rahim, M. (1969). Imperialism and Nationalism in the Sudan, Clarendon Press, Oxford. p.45
[12] Abdul-Rahim, M. (1969). Imperialism and Nationalism in the Sudan, Clarendon Press, Oxford. p.47
[13] Abdul-Rahim, M. (1969). Imperialism and Nationalism in the Sudan, Clarendon Press, Oxford. p.47-48
[14] Warburg, G. (1971). The Sudan under Wingate: Administration in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1899-1916, Frank Cass, London. p.76
[15] MacMichael, H. (1934). The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Faber and Faber, London. p.113